Marx considers this a basic element of manufacture. In Section 3, “The Two Fundamental Forms of Manufacture- Heterogeneous and Organic” Marx argues that the production of various commodities produces a hierarchy of skilled and unskilled labor. Skilled labor requires large amounts of training or skill and tends to command a higher value of labor-power, while unskilled labor, which any man can do, takes little to no training and commands a lower value of labor-power”. Keeping these highly specialized workers focused on keeping there highly valued job skills along with keeping them divided from their trade as a whole making of one commodity 1z0-042 Exam further devalues there labor power to each of them. Also one item with several menial processes (each assigned to one worker) helps to divide the workers from the value of their own labor power. In section 4, “The Division of Labour in Manufacture and the Division of Labour in Society” Marx argues that the division of labor in society has existed long before capitalism. However, Marx sees the division of labour within a factory or workshop as something totally unique to the capitalist mode of production”. While physiological and social circumstances may mediate the division of labour in society, it is the need to produce surplus value which creates the need for a division of labour within manufacture. In section 5, “The Capitalist Character of Manufacture” Marx considers the way in which a division of labour within manufacture limits the mind and education of a worker. Marx also points to the revolution of machinery as a way to increase surplus-value by increasing the productivity of each worker thereby reducing the number of unskilled workers necessary. Marx explains 1z0-007 Exam the Development of Machinery. “The machine is a means for producing surplus-value” (Marx 492). Machines shorten the part of the working day that the worker works for his means of subsistence, in turn lengthening the work they do contributing to the capitalists Surplus Value. Marx explains the three parts of machinery. The motor mechanism, the transmitting mechanism, and the working machine. * 1. The motor mechanism powers the mechanism. Be it a steam engine, water wheel or a person’s caloric engine. * 2. The transmitting mechanism, wheels, screws, and ramps and pulleys. These are the moving parts of the machine. * 3. The working machine uses itself to sculpt whatever it was built to do. Machines do tasks that workers formerly did with hand tools, but a bit more efficiently. Workers still must run these machines and maybe even power them. This is where animal power comes into play. Marx says that if a man is found operating a machine where an animal could do just as well, “it is purely accidental that the motive power seems to be clothed in the form of a human” (Marx 497). PMI-001 Exam Marx states obviously that the bigger the size of the machine, the more motive power it will need to be run. As far as the development of machinery, necessity is the mother of invention. “Men wore clothes before there were any tailors” (Marx 503). Inventors started inventing machines to complete necessary tasks, the machine making industry grew larger and workers efforts started going toward building machines. Many machines being made, spawned need for new machines. For example, the spinning machine started a need for printing and dying, and the designing of the cotton gin. Here, started the building of machines, by machines. “Without steam engines, the hydraulic press could not have been made.” Along with the press, came the mechanical lathe and an iron cutting machine. Labor assumes a material mode of existence which necessitates the replacement of human force by natural forces” (Marx 508). Human labor is often taken over by practical/natural forces, saving the laborer work time done for his means of subsistence and increasing his Surplus Value.

A group working under a capitalist does as much work as another group of the same amount of people working under the same capitalist. Their skills and shortcomings balance each other out to make groups of the same number equatable. Upon dividing up groups into smaller subgroups, changes can be noticed. Marx states, "Of the six small masters, then, one would squeeze out more than the average rate of surplus-value, another less. The inequalities would cancel out for the society as a whole, but not for the individual masters." (p 441). To simplify, among individual groups, there will be stronger, more productive groups and weaker, less productive groups. However, when reexamining EX0-101 Exam the subgroups as a whole, the strong balance out the weak and balance is restored. With this information Marx defines co-operation as, "When numerous workers work together side by side in accordance with a plan, whether in the same process, or in different but connected processes." (p 443). This works well for capitalists in that, social contact brings out a natural competitive nature in people which in turn produces more commodities. Co-operation also shortens the time needed to complete a certain task. Marx says, "If the labour process is complicated, then the sheer number of the co-operators permits the apportionment of various operations to different hands, and consequently their simultaneous performance. The time necessary for the completion of the whole work is thereby shortened." (p 445). The only problem for capitalists comes with payment. It is easier for a capitalist to hire fewer people and pay them for a longer period of time than to pay many workers for a short amount of time. In essence, the amount of capital a capitalist has to spare for payment affects how many laborers he can hire at any given time. With co-operation also comes resistance. The larger a group, the more likely they are to resist conditions implemented by the capitalist and so the more the capitalist must overcome EX0-100 Exam their resistance. Marx also makes the point to say, "It is not because he is a leader of industry that a man is a capitalist; on the contrary, he is a leader of industry because he is a capitalist." (p 450). Marx concludes by showing an example of co-operation that many are familiar with: the creation of the pyramids. As the food grown in the Nile valley belonged to the king, he was able to commission a large number of people to work in co-operation with one another to create the pyramids in a very short amount of time. In section I, “The Dual Origin of Manufacture” Marx identifies two ways in which manufacture originates. The first method occurs when a series of workers with different trades are brought together to work for one capitalist under the same roof, in such a way that a single product passes from one worker to the next. Under this method tradesmen find themselves making only one type of product: “so that a locksmith working for a carriage company would make locks only for carriages when he used to make 1Y0-259 Exam locks for a variety of different products ”. The second form occurs when a capitalist hires a number of workers, each worker making an entire product himself. Under the external circumstance of requiring a need to speed up production this method changes so that each worker is given a specific task within the making of a product”. Isolated jobs on each commodity can start to be assigned to one worker and a division of labour can be created in this manner. In section 2, “The Specialized Worker and His Tools” Marx argues that a worker who performs only one task throughout his life will perform his job at a faster and more productive rate, forcing Capital to favor the specialized worker to the traditional craftsmen”. In this section Marx also demonstrates that a specialized worker doing only one task can use a more specialized tool, which cannot do many jobs but can do the one job well, in a more efficient manner than a traditional craftsman using a multi-purpose tool on any specific task

advanced in the purchase of an individual labor power, V being the total amount of variable capital, P being the value of an average labor-power, and a' / a represents the degree of exploitation (surplus labor/necessary labor). Marx lets it be known that under this law, that the mass of surplus-value is not constant in nature, but that a decrease in one factor can be made up by an increase in another factor, such as variable capital dropping but the exploitation of the labor-power increasing to make up for this change. Marx's second law deals with the limitation of compensating for lacking factors. He says that the "compensation for a decrease in the number SY0-101 Exam of workers employed cannot be overcome What we see is the natural tendency of capital automatically reducing the number of workers employed by the capitalist. It is important to note the average working day in terms of compensating for fluctuating factors, because it sets an absolute limit on such compensations. Marx's third law states that "The rate of surplus-value and the value of labor time, being given, it is self-evident that the greater the variable capital, the greater would be the mass of the value produced and of the surplus-value". These two factors explained are completely dependent on the mass of labor performed by the worker, or better yet how heavily the worker is exploited. Marx states that this law, or the numerical value of the factors involved here, are determined by how much variable capital is advanced from the capitalist. He further suggests that we now know the capitalist divides his capital into two parts; one part on the means of production (a constant factor) and the other on the living CISSP Exam labor-power, which is heavily exploited and forms his variable capital. Marx then goes onto discuss what can decrease the value of labor-power. First, remember that the value of labor-power is “the labor-time necessary to produce labor-power”. With this in mind, Marx says that the value of labor-power can be decreased if there is an increase in the productivity of labor. But productivity of labor cannot be increased without there first being a change in the mode of production, i.e. there must be innovations in both the technical and social conditions of the process of labor. And when the value of labor-power falls alongside an increase in the productivity of labor, commodities become cheaper. Along with this, Marx states that, as the productivity of labor increases, so, too, does the relative surplus-value; on the other hand, when there is a decrease in the productivity of labor, the relative surplus-value decreases as well. In other words, there is a direct proportion between the two things. The perpetual drive of capital according to Marx is to increase SSCP Exam the productivity of labor, so that commodities can become cheaper. Through this process, the worker himself becomes cheaper. The reader is reminded that the capitalist is not interested in the absolute value of a commodity; instead, he is concerned with the surplus-value that is there in it, a value that is recognized through the sale of that commodity. Marx concludes that, through the increase of the productivity of labor, the aim of capitalist production “is the shortening of that part of the working day in which the worker must work for himself, and the lengthening, thereby, of the other part of the day, in which he is free to work for nothing for the capitalist

Capital did not invent surplus labor”, begins Marx. This section focuses of the historical tendency for the owners of the means of production to attempt to extract greater and greater amounts of surplus labor out of workers, often in an unscrupulous manner. He gives two main examples. The first is the system of the “corvée” in the Danubian provinces of precapitalist Russia. The second example is that of a fraudulent capitalist factory owner. Under the corvée system of the early 19th century, the peasant owed a specific quantity of labor to the landlord annually. 220-601 Exam This labor consisted of 12 general labor days, one day of field labor, and one day of wood carrying. This amounted to a total of 14 days a year. These days were not average work days, however. They amounted to the total time necessary to produce an average daily product. Russian leaders took such great liberties in deciding what an average daily product was that it turned out to be equal to three days of actual work. The 14 days of corvée became 42 days of required labor. Marx then gives a few more examples of ways the landlords were able to tack on more and more days to the corvée. The second main example for the strong appetite for surplus labor is that of a fraudulent factory owner that illegally extends the working day. He does this by starting work 10 or 15 minutes early or by shaving a few minutes off of the beginning and ending of breaks and lunch hours. These small additions of work add up to hours of uncompensated surplus labor over the course of a week, 220-602 Exam and weeks of surplus labor over the course of a year. In this section, Marx presents the historical debate regarding the work day and the exploitation of children. Using examples of match manufacturing and bread-making, Marx describes the issues children faced by working long hours in poor conditions at extremely young ages. In many cases, these children died or faced long-term ailments. Marx also covers similar issues of exploitation of children in both Ireland and Scotland. Means of production (constant capital) exists to be used to produce commodities. When not in use, no surplus-labor is occurring. This unproductive time can only be seen as good for the capitalist if the time the constant capital lies dormant is used so that the worker can rest and be more productive when again using the means of production to create a commodity. Although is it ideal for the capitalist to have people who could work constantly (24 hours a day), the workers would suffer and thus profits could not continue to increase. In order to produce 24 hours a day, the capitalist realized that by instituting shift-work, he N10-003 Exam could both maximize his profits while allowing the individual worker to get his necessary rest Ideally a capitalist would have an individual worker producing 24 hours a day with only so much rest time as the worker needed to continue to function. The worker is nothing more to the capitalist than labor-power and a means to accumulate surplus-value and so the worker’s personal time means nothing to the capitalist. Yet according to Marx, having this attitude is a double-edge sword in that if the capitalist had his way and exploited the worker to this extent, he would in essence be killing his own workforce. However the value of labor-power (the worker) includes all of the commodities that go into keeping the worker alive. In the end, it is more expensive for the capitalist to replace a worker than to keep one sustained adequately. Ultimately it is in capital’s best interest to not have an individual work 24 hours a day with only necessary breaks but to have a work day that is short enough to sustain healthy strong labor-power.

In order to explain the conversion of money into capital, Marx offers an example of yarn production. A 12-hour workday produces 20 lbs of yarn valued at a total of 30s. 24s of value are the result of constant capital (20 lbs of cotton at 20s, and 4s for repair of the machine). The remaining 6s includes the variable capital (the worker’s wage) and the surplus value (profit). The workers wage is 3s and 3s of surplus are produced, equaling a % 100 rate of exploitation (3s/3s). This exploitation occurs not only during the process of spinning the yarn, but during the production of 70-649 Exam all its constituents (i.e. picking the cotton, building the spindle etc.) In section 3 of chapter 9, Marx condemns the economic analysis of cotton mills conducted by Professor Nassau W. Senior in his pamphlet “Letters on the Factory Act, as it affects the cotton manufacture.” The pamphlet suggest that the entirety of the surplus value is produced during the last hour of a 12 hour workday, with the remainder contributing to the wage of the worker. Marx disputes Senior’s analysis on the grounds that Senior failed to separate constant and variable capital, instead including the mill and machinery as one factor and the wages and raw material as a second factor. This failure to discern between variable and constant capital was considered by Marx to be a crucial blunder. Marx also notes that the value produced during each hour is likely to be equal, and if 11 hours were contributing to wages, with 1 hour producing net profit, that proportion should be reflected in the ratio of wages paid to profits. Senior’s calculations do not take into account the value embedded in the constant capital and takes for granted their contribution of value to the finished product, instead of acknowledging that the method of transferring that value is through the use of labor-power. Surplus Produce Surplus-produce refers to the portion of the product that represents surplus-value. Like the ratio of surplus value to variable VCP-310 Exam capital, the relative quantity of surplus production is determined by the ratio of surplus-produce to the part of the total product in which necessary labor time is incorporated. The sum of necessary and surplus labor constitutes the working day. Under the Capitalist system, Marx says that a working day can never be reduced to necessary labor time only. This would not profit the capitalist. Marx then describes the two factors that limit the maximum length of the working day. First, there are physical limits to labor power. A worker can only work for so long before he must rest, eat, sleep, etc. In addition to physical limitations, there are moral obstacles that limit the working day. “The worker needs time in which to satisfy his intellectual and social requirements, and the extent and the number of these requirements is conditioned by the general level of civilization.” The capitalist seeks to create the most surplus value he can by extending the working day to absorb the greatest possible amount of surplus labor. In other words, the capitalist is like any other buyer of commodities; he wants to extract the maximum use value of his commodity, which in this case is labor power. The worker who sells his labor power must be able to reproduce it every day in order to resell it. If the working day is extended too far, the capitalist may extract a greater quantity of labor power than the worker is able to restore before his next shift begins. This will cause deterioration in the health of the worker. Marx goes on to describe VCP-101V Exam how the process of overwork leads to the worker being unfairly compensated for his labor power in his daily wages. He gives this example: If the average length of time a worker can live and do a reasonable amount of work is 30 years, the value of his labor power for which he is paid from day to day is: 1 /( 365 x 30) or 1 / 10,950 of its total value. If worked too hard and the value of his labor power is consumed in 10 years, he is still paid the same amount. That is 1 / 10,950 of his labor power daily instead of 1 / 3650. Therefore he is only paid 1 / 3 the value of his labor power daily, and is robbed of 2 / 3. Marx concludes this section saying that the establishment of a norm for the working day presents its self as a struggle between collective capital (class of capitalists) and collective labor